Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Market Professional Survey Report 2019
Table of ContentsExecutive Summary
1 Industry Overview of Life Science Microscopy Devices
1.1 Definition of Life Science Microscopy Devices
1.2 Life Science Microscopy Devices Segment by Type
1.2.1 Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Growth Rate Comparison by Types (2014-2025)
1.2.2 Optical Microscopes
1.2.3 Electron Microscopes
1.2.4 Scanning Probe Microscopes
1.3 Life Science Microscopy Devices Segment by Applications
1.3.1 Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Consumption Comparison by Applications (2014-2025)
1.3.2 Cell Biology
1.3.3 Clinical / Pathology
1.3.4 Biomedical Engineering
1.3.5 Pharmacology & Toxicology
1.3.6 Neuroscience
1.4 Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Overall Market
1.4.1 Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue (2014-2025)
1.4.2 Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Production (2014-2025)
1.4.3 North America Life Science Microscopy Devices Status and Prospect (2014-2025)
1.4.4 Europe Life Science Microscopy Devices Status and Prospect (2014-2025)
1.4.5 China Life Science Microscopy Devices Status and Prospect (2014-2025)
1.4.6 Japan Life Science Microscopy Devices Status and Prospect (2014-2025)
1.4.7 Southeast Asia Life Science Microscopy Devices Status and Prospect (2014-2025)
1.4.8 India Life Science Microscopy Devices Status and Prospect (2014-2025)
2 Manufacturing Cost Structure Analysis
2.1 Raw Material and Suppliers
2.2 Manufacturing Cost Structure Analysis of Life Science Microscopy Devices
2.3 Manufacturing Process Analysis of Life Science Microscopy Devices
2.4 Industry Chain Structure of Life Science Microscopy Devices
3 Development and Manufacturing Plants Analysis of Life Science Microscopy Devices
3.1 Capacity and Commercial Production Date
3.2 Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Manufacturing Plants Distribution
3.3 Major Manufacturers Technology Source and Market Position of Life Science Microscopy Devices
3.4 Recent Development and Expansion Plans
4 Key Figures of Major Manufacturers
4.1 Life Science Microscopy Devices Production and Capacity Analysis
4.2 Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Analysis
4.3 Life Science Microscopy Devices Price Analysis
4.4 Market Concentration Degree
5 Life Science Microscopy Devices Regional Market Analysis
5.1 Life Science Microscopy Devices Production by Regions
5.1.1 Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Production by Regions
5.1.2 Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue by Regions
5.2 Life Science Microscopy Devices Consumption by Regions
5.3 North America Life Science Microscopy Devices Market Analysis
5.3.1 North America Life Science Microscopy Devices Production
5.3.2 North America Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue
5.3.3 Key Manufacturers in North America
5.3.4 North America Life Science Microscopy Devices Import and Export
5.4 Europe Life Science Microscopy Devices Market Analysis
5.4.1 Europe Life Science Microscopy Devices Production
5.4.2 Europe Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue
5.4.3 Key Manufacturers in Europe
5.4.4 Europe Life Science Microscopy Devices Import and Export
5.5 China Life Science Microscopy Devices Market Analysis
5.5.1 China Life Science Microscopy Devices Production
5.5.2 China Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue
5.5.3 Key Manufacturers in China
5.5.4 China Life Science Microscopy Devices Import and Export
5.6 Japan Life Science Microscopy Devices Market Analysis
5.6.1 Japan Life Science Microscopy Devices Production
5.6.2 Japan Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue
5.6.3 Key Manufacturers in Japan
5.6.4 Japan Life Science Microscopy Devices Import and Export
5.7 Southeast Asia Life Science Microscopy Devices Market Analysis
5.7.1 Southeast Asia Life Science Microscopy Devices Production
5.7.2 Southeast Asia Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue
5.7.3 Key Manufacturers in Southeast Asia
5.7.4 Southeast Asia Life Science Microscopy Devices Import and Export
5.8 India Life Science Microscopy Devices Market Analysis
5.8.1 India Life Science Microscopy Devices Production
5.8.2 India Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue
5.8.3 Key Manufacturers in India
5.8.4 India Life Science Microscopy Devices Import and Export
6 Life Science Microscopy Devices Segment Market Analysis (by Type)
6.1 Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Production by Type
6.2 Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue by Type
6.3 Life Science Microscopy Devices Price by Type
7 Life Science Microscopy Devices Segment Market Analysis (by Application)
7.1 Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Consumption by Application
7.2 Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Consumption Market Share by Application (2014-2019)
8 Life Science Microscopy Devices Major Manufacturers Analysis
8.1 Olympus Corporation
8.1.1 Olympus Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Sites and Area Served
8.1.2 Olympus Corporation Product Introduction, Application and Specification
8.1.3 Olympus Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Production, Revenue, Ex-factory Price and Gross Margin (2014-2019)
8.1.4 Main Business and Markets Served
8.2 Nikon Corporation
8.2.1 Nikon Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Sites and Area Served
8.2.2 Nikon Corporation Product Introduction, Application and Specification
8.2.3 Nikon Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Production, Revenue, Ex-factory Price and Gross Margin (2014-2019)
8.2.4 Main Business and Markets Served
8.3 Bruker Corporation
8.3.1 Bruker Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Sites and Area Served
8.3.2 Bruker Corporation Product Introduction, Application and Specification
8.3.3 Bruker Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Production, Revenue, Ex-factory Price and Gross Margin (2014-2019)
8.3.4 Main Business and Markets Served
8.4 JOEL Ltd.
8.4.1 JOEL Ltd. Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Sites and Area Served
8.4.2 JOEL Ltd. Product Introduction, Application and Specification
8.4.3 JOEL Ltd. Life Science Microscopy Devices Production, Revenue, Ex-factory Price and Gross Margin (2014-2019)
8.4.4 Main Business and Markets Served
8.5 FEI Company
8.5.1 FEI Company Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Sites and Area Served
8.5.2 FEI Company Product Introduction, Application and Specification
8.5.3 FEI Company Life Science Microscopy Devices Production, Revenue, Ex-factory Price and Gross Margin (2014-2019)
8.5.4 Main Business and Markets Served
8.6 Hitachi High-Technologies Corporation
8.6.1 Hitachi High-Technologies Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Sites and Area Served
8.6.2 Hitachi High-Technologies Corporation Product Introduction, Application and Specification
8.6.3 Hitachi High-Technologies Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Production, Revenue, Ex-factory Price and Gross Margin (2014-2019)
8.6.4 Main Business and Markets Served
8.7 Leica Microsystems
8.7.1 Leica Microsystems Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Sites and Area Served
8.7.2 Leica Microsystems Product Introduction, Application and Specification
8.7.3 Leica Microsystems Life Science Microscopy Devices Production, Revenue, Ex-factory Price and Gross Margin (2014-2019)
8.7.4 Main Business and Markets Served
8.8 Carl Zeiss Microscopy
8.8.1 Carl Zeiss Microscopy Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Sites and Area Served
8.8.2 Carl Zeiss Microscopy Product Introduction, Application and Specification
8.8.3 Carl Zeiss Microscopy Life Science Microscopy Devices Production, Revenue, Ex-factory Price and Gross Margin (2014-2019)
8.8.4 Main Business and Markets Served
8.9 Cameca SAS
8.9.1 Cameca SAS Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Sites and Area Served
8.9.2 Cameca SAS Product Introduction, Application and Specification
8.9.3 Cameca SAS Life Science Microscopy Devices Production, Revenue, Ex-factory Price and Gross Margin (2014-2019)
8.9.4 Main Business and Markets Served
8.10 NT-MDT
8.10.1 NT-MDT Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Sites and Area Served
8.10.2 NT-MDT Product Introduction, Application and Specification
8.10.3 NT-MDT Life Science Microscopy Devices Production, Revenue, Ex-factory Price and Gross Margin (2014-2019)
8.10.4 Main Business and Markets Served
9 Development Trend of Analysis of Life Science Microscopy Devices Market
9.1 Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Market Trend Analysis
9.1.1 Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Market Size (Volume and Value) Forecast 2019-2025
9.2 Life Science Microscopy Devices Regional Market Trend
9.2.1 North America Life Science Microscopy Devices Forecast 2019-2025
9.2.2 Europe Life Science Microscopy Devices Forecast 2019-2025
9.2.3 China Life Science Microscopy Devices Forecast 2019-2025
9.2.4 Japan Life Science Microscopy Devices Forecast 2019-2025
9.2.5 Southeast Asia Life Science Microscopy Devices Forecast 2019-2025
9.2.6 India Life Science Microscopy Devices Forecast 2019-2025
9.3 Life Science Microscopy Devices Market Trend (Product Type)
9.4 Life Science Microscopy Devices Market Trend (Application)
10.1 Marketing Channel
10.1.1 Direct Marketing
10.1.2 Indirect Marketing
10.3 Life Science Microscopy Devices Customers
11 Market Dynamics
11.1 Market Trends
11.2 Opportunities
11.3 Market Drivers
11.4 Challenges
11.5 Influence Factors
12 Conclusion
13 Appendix
13.1 Methodology/Research Approach
13.1.1 Research Programs/Design
13.1.2 Market Size Estimation
13.1.3 Market Breakdown and Data Triangulation
13.2 Data Source
13.2.1 Secondary Sources
13.2.2 Primary Sources
13.3 Author List
13.4 Disclaimer
List of Tables and FiguresFigure Picture of Life Science Microscopy Devices
Table Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Production (K Units) Growth Rate Comparison by Types (2014-2025)
Figure Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Market Share by Types in 2018
Figure Optical Microscopes Product Picture
Figure Electron Microscopes Product Picture
Figure Scanning Probe Microscopes Product Picture
Table Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Consumption (K Units) Comparison by Applications (2014-2025)
Figure Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Consumption Market Share by Applications in 2018
Figure Cell Biology
Figure Clinical / Pathology
Figure Biomedical Engineering
Figure Pharmacology & Toxicology
Figure Neuroscience
Figure Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue (Million USD) (2014-2025)
Figure Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Production (K Units) (2014-2025)
Figure North America Life Science Microscopy Devices Market Size (Million USD) (2014-2025)
Figure Europe Life Science Microscopy Devices Market Size (Million USD) (2014-2025)
Figure China Life Science Microscopy Devices Market Size (Million USD) (2014-2025)
Figure Japan Life Science Microscopy Devices Market Size (Million USD) (2014-2025)
Figure Southeast Asia Life Science Microscopy Devices Market Size (Million USD) (2014-2025)
Figure India Life Science Microscopy Devices Market Size (Million USD) (2014-2025)
Table Life Science Microscopy Devices Raw Material and Suppliers
Table Manufacturing Cost Structure Analysis of Life Science Microscopy Devices in 2018
Figure Manufacturing Process Analysis of Life Science Microscopy Devices
Figure Industry Chain Structure of Life Science Microscopy Devices
Table Capacity and Commercial Production Date of Key Manufacturers
Table Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Manufacturing Plants Distribution
Table Life Science Microscopy Devices Major Manufacturers Technology Source and Market Position
Table Recent Development and Expansion Plans in Future
Table Life Science Microscopy Devices Capacity (K Units) of Major Manufacturers (2014-2019)
Table Life Science Microscopy Devices Production (K Units) of Major Manufacturers (2014-2019)
Table Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Market Share of Major Manufacturers (2014-2019)
Figure Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Share by Manufacturers in 2018
Table Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue (Million US$) of Major Manufacturers (2014-2019)
Table Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Market Share of Major Manufacturers (2014-2019)
Figure Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Share by Manufacturers in 2018
Table Life Science Microscopy Devices Average Price (USD/Unit) of Major Manufacturers (2014-2019)
Table Global Manufacturers Market Concentration Ratio (CR5 and HHI)
Table Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Production by Regions 2014-2019 (K Units)
Table Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Market Share by Regions 2014-2019
Figure Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Market Share by Regions in 2018
Table Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue by Regions 2014-2019 (Million USD)
Table Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Market Share by Regions 2014-2019
Figure Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Market Share by Regions in 2018
Table Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Consumption by Regions 2014-2019 (K Units)
Table Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Consumption Market Share by Regions 2014-2019
Figure North America Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Growth Rate 2014-2019 (K Units)
Figure North America Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Growth Rate 2014-2019 (Million USD)
Table North America Life Science Microscopy Devices Production, Consumption Import and Export (K Units)
Figure Europe Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Growth Rate 2014-2019 (K Units)
Figure Europe Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Growth Rate 2014-2019 (Million USD)
Table Europe Life Science Microscopy Devices Production, Consumption Import and Export (K Units)
Figure China Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Growth Rate 2014-2019 (K Units)
Figure China Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Growth Rate 2014-2019 (Million USD)
Table China Life Science Microscopy Devices Production, Consumption Import and Export (K Units)
Figure Japan Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Growth Rate 2014-2019 (K Units)
Figure Japan Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Growth Rate 2014-2019 (Million USD)
Table Japan Life Science Microscopy Devices Production, Consumption Import and Export (K Units)
Figure Southeast Asia Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Growth Rate 2014-2019 (K Units)
Figure Southeast Asia Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Growth Rate 2014-2019 (Million USD)
Table Southeast Asia Life Science Microscopy Devices Production, Consumption Import and Export (K Units)
Figure India Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Growth Rate 2014-2019 (K Units)
Figure India Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Growth Rate 2014-2019 (Million USD)
Table India Life Science Microscopy Devices Production, Consumption Import and Export (K Units)
Figure Global Consumption Life Science Microscopy Devices Market Share by Application (2014-2019)
Figure Global Value (Consumption) Life Science Microscopy Devices Market Share by Application (2014-2019)
Table Olympus Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Sites and Area Served
Table Olympus Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Product Introduction, Application and Specification
Table Olympus Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Production (K Units), Revenue (Million USD), Ex-factory Price (USD/Unit) and Gross Margin (2014-2019)
Table Olympus Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Growth Rate (2014-2019)
Table Olympus Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Market Share (2014-2019)
Figure Olympus Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Market Share (2014-2019)
Table Olympus Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Main Business and Markets Served
Table Nikon Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Sites and Area Served
Table Nikon Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Product Introduction, Application and Specification
Table Nikon Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Production (K Units), Revenue (Million USD), Ex-factory Price (USD/Unit) and Gross Margin (2014-2019)
Table Nikon Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Growth Rate (2014-2019)
Table Nikon Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Market Share (2014-2019)
Figure Nikon Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Market Share (2014-2019)
Table Nikon Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Main Business and Markets Served
Table Bruker Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Sites and Area Served
Table Bruker Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Product Introduction, Application and Specification
Table Bruker Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Production (K Units), Revenue (Million USD), Ex-factory Price (USD/Unit) and Gross Margin (2014-2019)
Table Bruker Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Growth Rate (2014-2019)
Table Bruker Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Market Share (2014-2019)
Figure Bruker Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Market Share (2014-2019)
Table Bruker Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Main Business and Markets Served
Table JOEL Ltd. Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Sites and Area Served
Table JOEL Ltd. Life Science Microscopy Devices Product Introduction, Application and Specification
Table JOEL Ltd. Life Science Microscopy Devices Production (K Units), Revenue (Million USD), Ex-factory Price (USD/Unit) and Gross Margin (2014-2019)
Table JOEL Ltd. Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Growth Rate (2014-2019)
Table JOEL Ltd. Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Market Share (2014-2019)
Figure JOEL Ltd. Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Market Share (2014-2019)
Table JOEL Ltd. Life Science Microscopy Devices Main Business and Markets Served
Table FEI Company Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Sites and Area Served
Table FEI Company Life Science Microscopy Devices Product Introduction, Application and Specification
Table FEI Company Life Science Microscopy Devices Production (K Units), Revenue (Million USD), Ex-factory Price (USD/Unit) and Gross Margin (2014-2019)
Table FEI Company Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Growth Rate (2014-2019)
Table FEI Company Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Market Share (2014-2019)
Figure FEI Company Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Market Share (2014-2019)
Table FEI Company Life Science Microscopy Devices Main Business and Markets Served
Table Hitachi High-Technologies Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Sites and Area Served
Table Hitachi High-Technologies Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Product Introduction, Application and Specification
Table Hitachi High-Technologies Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Production (K Units), Revenue (Million USD), Ex-factory Price (USD/Unit) and Gross Margin (2014-2019)
Table Hitachi High-Technologies Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Growth Rate (2014-2019)
Table Hitachi High-Technologies Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Market Share (2014-2019)
Figure Hitachi High-Technologies Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Market Share (2014-2019)
Table Hitachi High-Technologies Corporation Life Science Microscopy Devices Main Business and Markets Served
Table Leica Microsystems Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Sites and Area Served
Table Leica Microsystems Life Science Microscopy Devices Product Introduction, Application and Specification
Table Leica Microsystems Life Science Microscopy Devices Production (K Units), Revenue (Million USD), Ex-factory Price (USD/Unit) and Gross Margin (2014-2019)
Table Leica Microsystems Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Growth Rate (2014-2019)
Table Leica Microsystems Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Market Share (2014-2019)
Figure Leica Microsystems Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Market Share (2014-2019)
Table Leica Microsystems Life Science Microscopy Devices Main Business and Markets Served
Table Carl Zeiss Microscopy Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Sites and Area Served
Table Carl Zeiss Microscopy Life Science Microscopy Devices Product Introduction, Application and Specification
Table Carl Zeiss Microscopy Life Science Microscopy Devices Production (K Units), Revenue (Million USD), Ex-factory Price (USD/Unit) and Gross Margin (2014-2019)
Table Carl Zeiss Microscopy Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Growth Rate (2014-2019)
Table Carl Zeiss Microscopy Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Market Share (2014-2019)
Figure Carl Zeiss Microscopy Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Market Share (2014-2019)
Table Carl Zeiss Microscopy Life Science Microscopy Devices Main Business and Markets Served
Table Cameca SAS Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Sites and Area Served
Table Cameca SAS Life Science Microscopy Devices Product Introduction, Application and Specification
Table Cameca SAS Life Science Microscopy Devices Production (K Units), Revenue (Million USD), Ex-factory Price (USD/Unit) and Gross Margin (2014-2019)
Table Cameca SAS Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Growth Rate (2014-2019)
Table Cameca SAS Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Market Share (2014-2019)
Figure Cameca SAS Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Market Share (2014-2019)
Table Cameca SAS Life Science Microscopy Devices Main Business and Markets Served
Table NT-MDT Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Sites and Area Served
Table NT-MDT Life Science Microscopy Devices Product Introduction, Application and Specification
Table NT-MDT Life Science Microscopy Devices Production (K Units), Revenue (Million USD), Ex-factory Price (USD/Unit) and Gross Margin (2014-2019)
Table NT-MDT Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Growth Rate (2014-2019)
Table NT-MDT Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Market Share (2014-2019)
Figure NT-MDT Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Market Share (2014-2019)
Table NT-MDT Life Science Microscopy Devices Main Business and Markets Served
Figure Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Production (K Units) Growth Rate Forecast 2019-2025
Figure Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue (Million USD) Growth Rate Forecast 2019-2025
Figure Global Life Science Microscopy Devices Sales Price (USD/Unit) Forecast 2019-2025
Figure North America Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Growth Rate Forecast 2019-2025 (K Units)
Figure North America Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Growth Rate Forecast 2019-2025 (Million USD)
Figure Europe Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Growth Rate Forecast 2019-2025 (K Units)
Figure Europe Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Growth Rate Forecast 2019-2025 (Million USD)
Figure China Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Growth Rate Forecast 2019-2025 (K Units)
Figure China Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Growth Rate Forecast 2019-2025 (Million USD)
Figure Japan Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Growth Rate Forecast 2019-2025 (K Units)
Figure Japan Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Growth Rate Forecast 2019-2025 (Million USD)
Figure Southeast Asia Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Growth Rate Forecast 2019-2025 (K Units)
Figure Southeast Asia Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Growth Rate Forecast 2019-2025 (Million USD)
Figure India Life Science Microscopy Devices Production Growth Rate Forecast 2019-2025 (K Units)
Figure India Life Science Microscopy Devices Revenue Growth Rate Forecast 2019-2025 (Million USD)
Table Global Production (K Units) of Life Science Microscopy Devices by Type (2019-2025)
Table Global Consumption (K Units) of Life Science Microscopy Devices by Application (2019-2025)
Table Life Science Microscopy Devices Distributors List
Table Life Science Microscopy Devices Customers List
Table Market Key Trends
Table Key Opportunities
Table Market Key Drivers
Table Key Challenges
Table Key Influence Factors
Table Research Programs/Design for This Report
Figure Bottom-up and Top-down Approaches for This Report
Figure Data Triangulation
Table Key Data Information from Secondary Sources
Table Key Data Information from Primary Sources